¿Qué es un bono? Cómo funciona, cómo paga intereses y qué riesgos conlleva.

Un bono es una forma que tienen los gobiernos y las empresas de obtener financiación de los inversores. A cambio, los inversores suelen recibir pagos de intereses periódicos y recuperan su inversión inicial al vencimiento del bono. Comprender cómo funcionan los bonos puede ayudarle a evaluar su rentabilidad potencial, sus costes y sus riesgos.

¿Qué es un bono?

Un bono es un tipo de inversión en deuda. Al comprar un bono, usted presta dinero a la entidad que lo emite, que suele ser un gobierno o una empresa. El emisor se compromete a pagar intereses durante un período determinado y a reembolsar el capital inicial en una fecha de vencimiento fija.

A diferencia de las acciones, que representan la propiedad de una empresa, los bonos te convierten en acreedor, no en accionista. No adquieres derechos de propiedad simplemente por poseer un bono corporativo. Tu rentabilidad proviene principalmente de los intereses y, según el precio que pagues, de las posibles ganancias al vencimiento o venta del bono.

Cada bono tiene algunos términos básicos que determinan su funcionamiento. El valor nominal (también llamado valor a la par) es la cantidad que el emisor se compromete a reembolsar al vencimiento. La tasa de cupón determina el pago anual de intereses como porcentaje del valor nominal, mientras que la fecha de vencimiento indica cuándo se debe reembolsar el capital.

Por ejemplo, supongamos que compra un bono con un valor nominal de $1,000, una tasa de cupón anual del 5% y un vencimiento a 10 años. Recibiría $50 de interés cada año, generalmente en dos pagos de $25. Al final de los 10 años, se espera que el emisor reembolse los $1,000 originales, siempre que cumpla con sus obligaciones de deuda.

Esta es la idea básica de un bono: usted aporta capital a un emisor, recibe intereses a cambio y espera recuperar su capital al vencimiento. Sin embargo, el precio que paga por un bono en el mercado no siempre coincide con su valor nominal, lo que puede afectar su rentabilidad real.

¿Cómo funcionan los bonos?

¿Qué sucede cuando compras un bono?

Cuando un gobierno o una empresa necesita recaudar fondos, puede emitir bonos para inversores. Este proceso es similar a obtener un préstamo, con la diferencia de que el préstamo se divide en títulos individuales que pueden ser adquiridos por muchos inversores.

Los inversores pueden comprar bonos de nueva emisión a través de un intermediario o mediante un proceso de emisión como una subasta de bonos del gobierno. El dinero recaudado se destina al emisor, que lo utiliza para financiar actividades como proyectos de infraestructura, expansión empresarial o el pago de deudas existentes.

Los bonos también pueden comprarse y venderse en el mercado secundario después de su emisión inicial. En este caso, se adquiere el bono a otro inversor en lugar de directamente al emisor. El tipo de interés y la fecha de vencimiento originales generalmente se mantienen sin cambios, pero el precio de mercado puede ser diferente del valor nominal del bono.

¿Cómo funcionan los pagos de intereses y el vencimiento de los bonos?

Most traditional bonds pay interest according to a predetermined schedule, often every six months. The payment is calculated using the bond's face value and coupon rate, not necessarily the price an investor paid for it.

For instance, a $1,000 bond with a 4% annual coupon pays $40 in interest per year. If you buy this bond for $950 in the secondary market, you still receive $40 annually because the coupon is based on its $1,000 face value.

When the bond reaches its maturity date, the issuer is generally required to repay the face value to the bondholder. Some bonds, however, have no regular interest payments. These are known as zero-coupon bonds. They are typically sold at a discount and repay their full face value at maturity, with the difference representing the investor's return.

Why Do Bond Prices Change?

Bond prices can move up or down while the securities are being traded in the market. One of the biggest factors behind these changes is interest rates.

Bond prices and market interest rates generally move in opposite directions. When market rates rise, newly issued bonds may offer higher interest payments than existing bonds. Older bonds with lower fixed coupon rates become less attractive, so their market prices tend to fall.

The opposite happens when market rates decline. Existing bonds with higher coupon payments become more appealing, which can push their prices up.

For example, imagine you own a bond paying 3% annual interest, but newly issued bonds with similar risk and maturity begin offering 5%. Investors may prefer the newer bonds, so you might have to sell your 3% bond at a discount to attract buyers.

Interest rates are not the only factor affecting bond prices. The issuer's financial condition, credit rating, remaining time until maturity, and investor demand can also influence what buyers are willing to pay. This means a bond's market value can change even when its scheduled interest payments remain the same.

How Do Investors Make Money From Bonds?

Earning Interest From Bond Payments

The most straightforward way to earn money from bonds is through coupon payments. As long as the issuer makes its scheduled payments, investors receive interest based on the bond's coupon rate and face value.

For example, holding $10,000 in bonds with a 4% annual coupon rate would generate $400 in interest per year. Investors who hold bonds for regular income often focus on these predictable payments, although the actual amount and payment schedule depend on the bond's terms.

Understanding Bond Yield

The coupon rate tells you how much interest a bond pays based on its face value, but it does not show the full return you may earn at the price you actually pay. This is where bond yield becomes important.

Two commonly used measures are current yield and yield to maturity (YTM):

• Current yield: Annual coupon payments divided by the bond's current market price. It shows the interest income relative to what you would pay for the bond today.
• Yield to maturity (YTM): The estimated annualized return if you buy the bond at its current price and hold it until maturity, assuming the issuer makes all payments and the coupon income can be reinvested at the calculated yield.

For example, a bond paying $50 in annual interest and trading at $950 has a current yield of approximately 5.26%. Its yield to maturity also considers the difference between the $950 purchase price and the $1,000 face value expected at maturity.

This distinction matters because a bond with a lower coupon rate can sometimes offer a higher yield if it trades at a sufficiently low price. Looking at yield rather than coupon rate alone gives investors a more useful picture of potential returns.

Making a Profit or Loss When Selling Bonds

Investors do not always have to hold bonds until maturity. Many bonds can be sold in the secondary market, allowing investors to exit their positions before the issuer repays the principal.

If you buy a bond for $950 and later sell it for $980, you make a $30 capital gain, excluding interest payments, fees, and taxes. If you sell it for $920 instead, you incur a $30 capital loss.

Changes in market interest rates can create these opportunities or losses. A bond purchased at a discount may rise in value when market rates decline, while a bond may lose value when rates increase. Changes in the issuer's creditworthiness can also affect its resale price.

Therefore, the total return from a bond can include both interest income and changes in its market value. Investors who sell before maturity should consider both rather than relying on the coupon rate alone.

What Are the Different Types of Bonds?

Bonds are generally classified by the type of organization that issues them. The three main categories are government bonds, corporate bonds, and municipal bonds. They differ in their issuers, credit risks, and potential returns.

Government Bonds

Government bonds are issued by national governments to raise money for public spending, infrastructure, and other financial needs. In the United States, Treasury securities are among the best-known examples.

These include Treasury bills, Treasury notes, and Treasury bonds, which have different maturity periods. U.S. Treasury securities are generally considered to have very low default risk because they are backed by the U.S. government. However, their market prices can still fluctuate when interest rates change, and inflation can reduce the purchasing power of their returns.

Corporate Bonds

Corporate bonds are issued by companies to finance business expansion, operations, acquisitions, or debt refinancing. In exchange for lending money, investors receive interest payments and repayment of principal according to the bond's terms.

Corporate bonds often offer higher yields than government bonds because companies generally carry greater credit risk. Investment-grade bonds are issued by companies with relatively strong credit ratings, while high-yield bonds come from issuers with lower credit ratings and a greater risk of default.

Municipal Bonds

Municipal bonds are issued by state and local governments or other public entities to fund projects such as roads, schools, hospitals, and water systems.

One feature that attracts investors to U.S. municipal bonds is their potential tax advantages. Interest income from many municipal bonds is exempt from federal income tax, and some may also qualify for state and local tax exemptions. However, tax treatment depends on the bond and the investor's circumstances.

Are Bonds a Safe Investment?

Bonds are often viewed as less volatile than stocks, but they are not risk-free. Their safety depends on who issues them, the interest rate environment, the bond's maturity, and whether the issuer can meet its payment obligations.

Why Investors Add Bonds to Their Portfolios

Investors often use bonds to generate income and diversify their portfolios. Bonds with regular coupon payments can provide a more predictable income stream than stocks, which may not pay dividends.

Government and high-quality corporate bonds can also help balance the fluctuations of a stock-heavy portfolio. However, bonds do not always move in the opposite direction to stocks, so diversification does not eliminate investment losses.

Interest Rate Risk

When market interest rates rise, existing fixed-rate bonds generally lose market value because newly issued bonds offer more attractive yields. Investors who need to sell before maturity may have to accept a lower price.

Longer-maturity bonds are generally more sensitive to interest rate changes than shorter-maturity bonds. This makes the timing of an investment and its maturity period important considerations.

Credit and Default Risk

Credit risk refers to the possibility that a bond issuer may fail to make scheduled interest payments or repay the principal. If a company experiences financial difficulties, its bonds may lose value even before an actual default occurs.

Credit ratings from agencies such as Moody's, SP, and Fitch can help investors assess an issuer's ability to repay its debt. However, ratings are opinions rather than guarantees, and an issuer's financial condition can change.

Inflation and Liquidity Risk

Inflation risk arises when rising prices reduce the real value of a bond's fixed interest payments and principal repayment. For example, a bond paying 3% annually may deliver a negative inflation-adjusted return if inflation remains above 3%.

Liquidity risk is the possibility that you cannot sell a bond quickly at a reasonable price. Bonds with smaller trading volumes or lower credit ratings may be harder to sell than actively traded government securities.

Bonds vs. Stocks: What's the Difference?

Los bonos y las acciones son dos opciones de inversión comunes, pero representan diferentes maneras de invertir dinero en una empresa o mercado financiero. Comprar una acción implica poseer una parte de una empresa, mientras que comprar un bono corporativo significa prestarle dinero a esa empresa.

Ninguna inversión es automáticamente mejor. Los bonos pueden ser adecuados para inversores que priorizan los ingresos regulares y los flujos de efectivo relativamente predecibles, mientras que las acciones pueden resultar atractivas para quienes buscan un crecimiento del capital a largo plazo y están dispuestos a aceptar mayores fluctuaciones de precios.

Muchos inversores mantienen ambas estrategias para equilibrar los ingresos, el potencial de crecimiento y el riesgo de la cartera. La combinación adecuada depende de sus objetivos de inversión, su horizonte temporal y su tolerancia a las pérdidas.